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What's the difference?
Hyundai's Ioniq range is nothing if not a flex in the face of Toyota.
Sure, Toyota has a dominating position in the Australian market, with its well-received range of hybrid models, but what happens after hybrid? Hyundai takes on the blocky Prius formula with not only a directly competing hybrid model, but a plug-in and a fully electric version, too.
This expansive range is as though Hyundai is trying to demonstrate it's ready for any future, near or far, and guess what, Toyota? Anything you can do; the Korean juggernaut thinks it can do better.
These cars aren't really designed to sell so much as they are offerings for early adopters, but a few years after its launch, with a host of rivals set to take it on, and an entire sub-brand based on the Ioniq just around the corner, is Hyundai's top-spec Ioniq electric worth a look? I took one for a week to find out.
Behold the beautiful Cupra Leon VZe.
Like its name and multimedia screen, this enigmatic hatchback needs some decoding to make sense to Australians.
Essentially, the Leon VZe is a variation of today's eighth-generation Volkswagen Golf. Except it's built in Spain by VW Group subsidiary SEAT (remember them?), offering sleeker styling, and – in VZe guise – a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) powertrain.
In other words, this is similar to the intriguing Golf GTE grade not offered in Australia, but with more than a splash of Balenciaga about the way it looks, feels and drives – and with pricing to match (from $59,990, before on-road costs).
So, does the Leon VZe combine the sportiness of a hot hatch and torquey zing of an EV with the parsimony of a hybrid? Could this be the most complete small car on sale in Australia today?
Let's spill the tea to find out.
Just like the Kona EV, Hyundai's Ioniq is still one of the best EV options on the market today. It strikes an excellent balance by offering significantly more range and better energy consumption than the more affordable Nissan Leaf or MG ZS EV, while providing the familiarity of the Hyundai spec and drive experience at a price only a little higher than a top-spec Prius.
Its relatively high score is a product of these factors, but also the way in which its interactivity offers the early adopters the engagement they will be searching for.
The Cupra Leon VZe demands you give it an appropriate amount of time to get to know.
Because, as an unknown challenger brand, as a hatch in an SUV world, as a PHEV wearing an EV price tag, it is up against it. And it's too interesting a car to be summarily dismissed.
But as long as you're not expecting a pure hot-hatch-cum-ultra-economical eco warrior, the VZe is a close-enough approximation of both for it to be an intriguing and enjoyable multi-faceted small car, while also possessing a fair degree of space as well as styling flair.
If you can forgive the screwy multimedia and cope with the high pricing, there's a lot to love here.
The Ioniq follows in the footsteps of eco hatches before it. You'll note this car's similarity in profile to the Toyota Prius, both shaped as such to secure low drag figures and therefore better economy and longer range.
While the Ioniq is a little more sedate than the wacky angles of the current Prius, there's no getting around the fact it's not exactly a cool shape. You could say it's interesting, perhaps, in the way it warps the low-drag box to Hyundai's styling cues, but dorky nonetheless. The LED headlights help lift it a little, but the filled-in grille and small 16-inch wheels hardly lend this car extra street cred.
The Ioniq is more a proof of concept for early adopters who care a little less about the way the car looks and a little more about its drivetrain and technology, which is clearly the focus here.
This can be seen in the Ioniq's interior, which has been re-worked for its most recent update. The digital features are impressive, with the floating 10.25-inch screen now totally dominating its dashboard.
I also like how the brand has given the instrument cluster a more modern design, with a cool floating bridge element over the top to eliminate glare, and, as always, Hyundai has made ergonomic use of its excellent switchgear and tidy steering wheel from the i30 and Kona ranges.
The climate unit has lost its tactile dials, replaced by touch-panel controls, and the lack of a transmission under the centre console has allowed plenty of negative space for the brand to play with, in this case a huge storage bay. There are also elements from more recently launched Hyundai models, which help to tidy the centre space up further, like an upright wireless-charging bay and shift-by-wire drive selector, which all looks very modern and neat.
It's a step towards things to come from the newly minted Ioniq sub-brand, which will do a lot more of this stripped-back, space-saving stuff with its next vehicle, the Ioniq 5 SUV. For now, though, the Ioniq is good as a half-step into the future. It's not as outlandish as a Tesla Model 3, for example, and will better suit a buyer looking for something a bit more familiar that still has a futuristic edge.
One reason why you might want a Leon over, say, one of the more common PHEV SUVs like the Mitsubishi Eclipse Cross PHEV, or even Cupra's own Formentor PHEV, is because of its pleasing, conventional five-door hatchback size and shape.
Sleek and chiselled, it is quite a looker, especially from the rear three-quarter view. And the wheels are equally pretty.
Only from front-on does the Leon seem anonymous and somewhat dated in appearance. But at least it avoids the droopy fussiness of the 308.
As mentioned, there's actually quite a lot of space in the Ioniq cabin, and the design has been further stripped back with its most recent updates.
The front seat seems a bit high for a hatch, although ergonomically everything is correct for the driver, with a good amount of adjustability in the seat back and wheel.
The big, bright multimedia touchscreen is easy to use, and the single centrally mounted volume dial is welcome, but I do sorely miss the dials for adjusting fan speed and temperature. Touch-panel controls, to me at least, are always inferior.
As already mentioned, the centre-console area under the climate unit has been almost entirely deleted for the electric variant, granting the driver a little more knee room, and leaving a deep rubberised bay for loose objects, maybe even small bags. This area also houses two 12v power outlets and one USB port. The centre console has been re-worked to include a smart, space-saving upright wireless-charging bay for your phone, the shift-by-wire console, and controls for the heated and ventilated seats. This area also hosts two large bottle holders, and a large centre-console box.
As is usual with Hyundai models, there's also a large bottle holder in the door, alongside a practical bin.
Rear passengers are treated to decent legroom, about on par with what you'd expect in a hatchback. Headroom is a little limited, both for getting in and out, with the descending roofline, so if you have family or friends taller than my 182cm height, they might be less than pleased.
The rear-seat area gets bottle holders in the doors and in the drop-down armrest, although there are no power outlets, just dual adjustable air vents.
The hatch body of the Ioniq makes for a decent boot volume of 357 litres, enough for a large pram or, in the case of my testing, the largest of the CarsGuide luggage cases, with ease. Hyundai gives you a little satchel to tidily store the standard powerpoint to Type 2 charging cable. A Type 2 to Type 2 cable, which you will need to charge at public outlets (up to 7.2kW) is not included.
Once standard setters, VW interiors have copped flak lately, losing the lead they once enjoyed in terms of perceived quality and functionality. A big backward step.
Within this context, the Leon's cabin is as aesthetically appealing as the exterior's, with lots of interesting angles and textures set within a broadly familiar VW-corporate multi-level dashboard design and presentation.
Most of the basics are largely fine, too. From the superbly enveloping front bucket seats and commanding driving position, to excellent ventilation and plenty of storage, there's much to commend.
The same goes for the moody, techy ambience, though it's closer to ‘chilled Audi' than ‘zesty Latin' in flavour.
Directly ahead of the driver is a 10.25-inch instrument cluster, offering several combinations of vehicle speed/operation and multimedia views.
Some of it looks good, some suffers from info-overload, but at least it's all configurable. Pick your favourite. And build quality seems up to scratch, too.
Like the Golf, there's also above-average space for longer legs and outstretched arms, while – after having to duck down a bit to get in – head and shoulder room are sufficient.
Selecting gears is a matter of manipulating a charmless stubby toggle. It works well enough, but remember when VW Group owners could interact with a Tiptronic-style lever and feel more immersed in the driving process? Memories.
That's replaced by paddle shifters, a divisive substitute that's of debatable merit in an electrified vehicle such as this, since they would serve better as regenerative braking controls.
But that's only the beginning of the confusion that ensues in the Cupra.
Reach for the 12-inch touchscreen to scroll through your many and varied media options, try and figure out the trip computer or search for an odometer reading, and any goodwill earned will be severely curtailed by just how needlessly complicated these and other once-simple tasks have become.
Plus, frustratingly, our particular car's multimedia system would just switch off mid-operation. This is not good.
We're certain time and familiarity will help make sense of working out where everything is and how to access vehicle functions located within layers of that touchscreen's myriad menus, but it is distracting and complicated.
And how is it that we could not find how to switch on nighttime illumination for the climate controls? In a week we failed to find that answer. And who ever green-lit fiddly slide controls over good old buttons? It's maddeningly frustrating.
Moving to the back seat, the Leon makes up some ground.
Two larger adults should settle into the outboard positions comfortably and snugly, aided by a pair of rear-facing air vents accompanied by a climate-control panel, two USB-C ports, a folding centre armrest with cupholders, ski-port access to the boot and useful storage via door bins and map pockets. There's even enough space for a third, smaller passenger to squeeze in between.
Further back, while the boot floor is long and flat and with a large tailgate opening to aid loading stuff in and out, the actual cargo capacity is just 270 litres, or nearly one-third down on the regular petrol Leon grades' 380L offering. This is due to the battery pack and related EV gubbins.
Speaking of which, if you need to carry charging cables there's nowhere to properly store them other than in the main boot area. And don't forget, there's no spare wheel.
At least there's a sturdy parcel shelf to keep prying eyes from seeing what you're carting around.
The VZe's interior, then, is spacious and broadly sensibly executed, but is let down – and mostly unnecessarily so – by some of the details. We strongly recommend trying before buying.
On the one hand, forking out over $50k for a car which looks like this is a tall order. On the other hand, there is no other electric car that really falls into this price bracket, and when you think about it, it's only a few thousand dollars more than a top-spec Prius.
The aggro never-EV types will argue you can have a very good hot hatch, like say, Hyundai's own i30 N for less, but then this car really is for those early adopters who are after a slice of future drivetrain tech rather than a complete value offering.
In the context of the EVs currently available in our market, the Ioniq shines. Yes, it is more expensive than rivals like the Nissan Leaf or MG ZS EV, but it also offers more range than either of those, at 311km measured to the more accurate WLTP standard.
This is short of Tesla's Model 3 standard range, but also more than $10k more affordable, and as I discovered on my week of testing; 311km, and it really is 311km, is plenty for a predominantly urban commuter to get by with either routine maintenance charging, or a once-a-week stop at a DC charger.
So, value then? As this car has probably the minimum electric range you really want for an Australian city at a price only a little above rivals which fall short, it's in quite the sweet spot.
Oh, you probably want to know about equipment, too. Our Ioniq electric Premium scores familiar equipment from the facelifted Hyundai i30 range, including a 10.25-inch multimedia touchscreen with Apple CarPlay and Android Auto connectivity, built-in sat-nav integrated with charging-station distances, a 7.0-inch digital dash cluster, eight-speaker premium audio system, 16-inch alloy wheels, LED headlights and DRLs, single-zone climate control, leather-appointed interior trim with heated and cooled front seats, a heated steering wheel, auto-dimming rear vision mirror, wireless phone charger, opening sunroof, and keyless entry with push-start ignition.
It's a good array of items, and we'll touch on this car's fully equipped safety suite later. The only notable omissions for now are the lack of a holographic head-up display and the lack of dual-zone climate control.
There's lots to unpack here.
SEAT started in 1950 as a venture between Fiat, the Spanish government and some private banks, until VW took over in 1986 and turned it into a youth-baiting value brand. Think pre-current Kia positioning.
Meanwhile, Cupra – a portmanteau of Cup Racing – had began as SEAT's competition arm earlier that decade. And there's been a Leon (referencing both ‘lion' and a city in Spain) based on every Golf since the latter's Mk4 iteration, making this generation numero cuatro.
Halve that figure and you end up with the number of small-car PHEVs left in Australia – Cupra's and another big-cat evoking Euro, the Peugeot 308 GT Sport PHEV, costing a few grand more than the VZe from $64,990, before on-road costs.
These high prices are clearly hurdles for Australian small-car buyers. Even Mercedes-Benz recently axed the slow-selling A250e due to a lack of buyer interest. Kia dropped the Niro PHEV. And Hyundai canned the Ioniq PHEV.
So, why are these types of cars so expensive, then?
The Leon and 308 feature a turbo-petrol engine, backed up by a small motor and a battery pack that's large enough to provide a claimed 67km of electric-only range in the Cupra's case. On paper at least.
That's more than the cheaper non-plug-in hybrid alternatives like the wildly-popular Toyota Corolla and superb Honda Civic e:HEV can manage.
So, besides exclusivity and two powertrains, what does the Leon VZe give you for your circa-$65K drive-away ask?
On the safety front, you'll find the now-usual driver-assist items like autonomous emergency braking (AEB), lane-support systems and adaptive cruise control, as well as 10 airbags including a nifty front-centre item. More on this in the safety section below.
Buyers also score LED headlights, auto high beams, fog lights with cornering function, adaptive dampers, tyre-pressure monitors, a reverse camera, electronic instrumentation, three-zone climate control, variable-ratio steering, keyless entry/start, satellite navigation, wireless phone charging as well as wireless Apple CarPlay/Android Auto.
There's also rear privacy glass, four USB-C ports, sports front seats, a heated steering wheel, paddle shifters, ambient lighting, powered/heated exterior mirrors as well as 19-inch alloy wheels and a tyre repair kit. No spare wheel is offered.
The pricier 308 PHEV has most of these plus Matrix LED lighting, Nappa leather upholstery, panoramic opening sunroof, heated/massaging front seats, 360-degree surround-view vision and a digital radio, but has smaller (18-inch) alloys and no adaptive dampers.
Our test car was fitted with the 'Leather Package' that adds $2050 to the price, ushering in leather upholstery, heated front seats with driver's side power and memory, premium audio and dash-top stitching, while the sunroof costs $1800 more.
These take the VZe north of $65,000 drive-away. That's pure-EV territory. Little wonder buyers baulk at PHEV small cars in Australia.
The Ioniq electric has a single motor on the front axle producing 100kW/295Nm. It's the least powerful EV in Hyundai's range, but still out-punches cars like the Toyota Prius on raw power. It drives the front wheels via a single reduction-gear transmission, and the Ioniq electric also has re-worked regenerative braking for its most recent update.
This is powered by a huge-for-its-size 38.3kWh lithium-ion battery pack under the floor.
Under the Leon VZe's bonnet is a variation of the German parent brand's familiar 1395cc 1.4-litre direct-injection four-cylinder turbo-petrol engine, driving the front wheels via a six-speed dual-clutch transmission.
This Euro 6-rated unit produces 110kW of power between 5000-6000rpm and 250Nm of torque from 1550-3500rpm.
Meanwhile, the 85kW/330Nm electric motor also nestled under there is fed by a 12.8kWh Lithium-ion battery pack slung out back. The system outputs combined produce 180kW and 400Nm.
Weighing in at 1634kg (tare), the VZe's power-to-weight ratio is an impressive 110kW per tonne, explaining this portly small car's feisty 6.7 second dash in the 0-100km/h sprint. However, once the battery is depleted, that drops to a much-more mundane 67.3kW/tonne.
Based on VW's 'MQB Evo' modular transverse engine architecture, the Leon features a sports-tuned MacPherson-style strut set-up up front and a multi-link rear end, while adaptive dampers and variable-ratio electric power steering are also fitted.
The huge 38.3kWh battery pack and official combined energy consumption of 15.7kWh/100km, grants the Ioniq electric an impressive 311km (WLTP) range. As already mentioned in the pricing section, this lets the Hyundai electric hatch strike a good balance for urban commuters, however, under our mostly urban testing, it's an even better story.
For context, electric cars are far more efficient when operating in an urban scenario than they are on the open road. This is because they can regenerate energy more often and are less susceptible to losses from drag. The Ioniq has a superb regenerative-braking system, which can be completely customised to the user's preference. Want to drive it with no regen braking (like a normal car)? You can. Want to have the full eco experience, and have the car's motor bring it to a halt even without using the brake pedal, thereby maximising the amount of energy recouped? You can absolutely do that, too.
For most of my week, I stuck the Ioniq in its maximum regenerative setting and was very impressed to find it return an efficiency rating of 12.3kWh/100km. Not only is this number well below its claim, it's by far the most efficient electric car I have driven, and the only one I haven't tried yet is the brand-new MG ZS EV.
Colour me very impressed. The Ioniq charges via the most popular socket, the European Mennekes Type 2 combo. On DC, the Ioniq can charge as fast as 100kW allowing for a charge time of 54 minutes from empty to 80 per cent. On AC, its max charge input is a frustratingly low 7.2kW, making for a charge time of six hours and five minutes (more expensive rivals will charge at 11kW or even the max 22kW), while from a 240v wall outlet (~2.3kW) it will charge in 17 hours and 30 minutes.
My single charge session was at a council-supported clean-energy Tritium charger with a max output on DC of 112kW. It charged my Ioniq from about 35 to 80 per cent in 32 minutes, and cost around $7.
Cupra says the combined cycle average fuel consumption figure is a startling 1.8 litres per 100km, equating to just 40 grams per kilometre of carbon-dioxide emissions. The electricity consumption claim is 11.2kWh/100km.
Out in the real world, we averaged 5.9L/100km pump-to-pump, while the car's trip computer read 5.5L. This is a disappointment.
It must be all those extra kilos the VZe has to carry around, as most of our driving was inner-urban or casual freeway cruising. The stop/start system was working overtime once that battery depleted.
We managed fewer than 40km of pure-electric driving, against a WLTP rating of 52km (or 67km using the more-lenient NEDC number Cupra quotes), with the trip computer telling us we were averaging 5.9kWh/100km – a figure likely achieved in hybrid mode with the petrol engine chiming in.
Charging times vary, with the 12.8kWh battery needing between six and eight hours plugged in at home, or about four hours using a 7.0kW AC charger via the Type 2 connector. No DC rapid charging ability is available.
Filling up the 40L fuel tank with the required 95 RON premium unleaded petrol and giving the VZe the benefit of the doubt by using the official fuel consumption average of 1.8L/100km to find out its PHEV range, you could theoretically achieve 2220km between refills.
Or about one-third of that by our real-world experience.
The Ioniq's familiar Hyundai switchgear makes it largely feel like the brand's i30 from behind the wheel, and this is a very good thing. This car is immediately ergonomic and user friendly, although the seating position is a little high, preventing it from feeling particularly sporty.
The Ioniq emits a pleasant choral tone at low speeds, which enhances the perception you're steering something from the near future. It also helps alert pedestrians nearby, which was one of my pet peeves about the silent Tesla Model 3. The noise is interesting enough that you'll have people peering closely at it to figure out what's going on. It even gets louder as you accelerate, as though the motor is making it and it's not entirely artificial. Cool.
This EV is silky smooth to drive and accelerate. Like other Hyundai electric cars, it doesn't have the unleashed electric torque of a Tesla, but it feels well attuned to driving around in an urban scenario, with viscous acceleration and regenerative braking. I was surprised to discover how heavy it feels, though.
I was expecting it to be heavier than its hybrid or PHEV counterparts but compared to the hybrid Prius I drove only a week or two prior, the electric Ioniq feels obese.
Upon closer examination, the Ioniq electric weighs 200kg more than the Prius, at 1575kg. It doesn't sound outrageous but it's enough to have this little car's suspension wallowing and occasionally crashing over bumps that wouldn't bother its hybrid versions or, indeed, the Prius.
This is perhaps emblematic of the issues facing smaller EVs like this. To get more than 300 kilometres of range, they need a lot of heavy batteries. Manufacturers can better hide this with the existing heft and better suspension travel of SUVs. The Kona EV, for example, feels less hefty than this little hatch.
Regardless, the electric motor dispatches with the Ioniq's weight easily when you really want to accelerate, and while it doesn't provide the hold-on-for-dear-life acceleration of Teslas, it's more than enough for a daily commuter. Unlike the Prius, the Ioniq does genuinely feel pretty sporty in the corners, thanks to steering that's on the heavier side, and a firm, responsive damper tune.
The regenerative braking is particularly good on the Ioniq. Using paddle-shifters usually reserved for changing gears, the Ioniq instead lets you alter the amount of regenerative braking available. Feel like coasting a bit faster? Flick the Regen braking off. Feel like maximising economy and range? Max it out in the drive mode of your choosing, and you can use it as essentially a ‘single pedal' car (you can go or stop by using the throttle alone).
It even has an auto mode, which I found to be pretty intuitive. Paired with a few different display options to let you get superior feedback on how you're tracking with battery usage, it's brilliant, and more electric vehicles should take note.
So, this is an eco-focused electric car that is reasonably engaging to drive if a little heavy. Most importantly for the electric era, it's highly interactive, helping you really understand how your inputs are affecting its battery usage, and how you can better drive it to maximise range.
There aren't many PHEVs out there, and that may remain the case, for Australians at least.
But the Leon VZe is definitely one of the more enjoyable of the breed to drive and ride in, with a sporty bias that lives up to its sleek and sexy styling.
With a fully-charged battery, off-the-line acceleration is brisk, and remains rapid as the revs and speed rise. It's smooth and slick in the best VW Group manner, and is accompanied by an appropriately stirring exhaust note. Especially in racy 'Cupra' mode.
The extra torque provided by the electric motor is also felt at low speeds, with little hesitation or delay from the throttle and DCT if the driver wants to instantly plug gaps in traffic.
Expertly tuned, the Cupra ought to be commended for how well-modulated everything feels and responds.
Find a fast, curvy ribbon of road and the Leon's steering comes alive, providing plenty of feel and control, backed up by a taut and agile chassis tune. Whether in 'Comfort' or 'Sport' modes, this is an athletic little hatch.
What the VZe isn't is a hot hatch.
When pushed, even in Sport or Cupra mode, it feels far heavier and less zippy than, say, a Golf GTI, lacking the latter's lithe spirit and dynamic dexterity.
That's not to say the Cupra isn't an involving, capable and secure handler or road-holder, because in isolation this is a terrific little car to hammer along. But it doesn't excite or thrill like the best of them. For more clarity on this, please drive a Civic Type R.
The driver can switch between electric, hybrid and turbo-engine-only modes to help preserve electricity, but once the battery is spent, there isn't the same level of punchy torque available.
Better, then, to instead select Comfort mode and let the adaptive dampers isolate you from those irritating bumps; while not plush, the ride is compliant enough for the VZe to make a very good impression of a grand tourer. Road noise intrusion, too, is pleasingly muted.
We're also grateful Cupra allows the driver to mix-and-match the drive modes, so you can choose a spicy engine tune with cushy suspension if you wish.
Note, however, that our Leon insisted on defaulting to Sport mode after every start-up. Using the flummoxing touchscreen to figure out how to change that to Comfort or Normal was a challenge.
Otherwise, there's much to enjoy from behind the wheel of the VZe. Probably the most fun PHEV we've ever punted around.
The Ioniq electric comes with the full suite of Hyundai SmartSense safety features, with active items including freeway-speed auto emergency braking (detects vehicles up to 180km/h, detects pedestrians up to 70km/h), lane-keep assist with lane-departure warning, blind-spot monitoring with rear cross traffic alert, adaptive cruise control, driver-attention alert, and auto high-beam assist.
This is backed by the usual stability, brake, and traction systems, as well as seven airbags (the standard dual front, side, and head array, plus a driver's knee) securing the Ioniq a maximum five star ANCAP safety rating dating back to its launch in 2018. It scored highly across all categories.
Tested in 2021, the Leon range achieved an ANCAP crash-test rating of five stars.
The VZe is fitted with 10 airbags – dual front, side chest, side head, driver knee and a front centre item; the latter is there to help reduce occupant-collision injury in lateral impacts.
On the driver assist tech side of things, the AEB includes pedestrian, cyclist and reversing detection, and there's 'Lane Assist', park assist, blind-spot monitor, rear cross-traffic alert with exit warning, a driver-fatigue monitor, emergency assist and tyre pressure monitors.
The AEB is operational between 5.0km/h and 250km/h. Likewise, the lane-support systems kick in between 65-250km/h.
The VZe is also fitted with electronic stability control, traction control, anti-lock brakes with brake assist and electronic brake-force distribution, adaptive cruise control, an alarm, auto on/off LED headlights with auto high beam, cornering driving lights, front and rear parking sensors, rain-sensing wipers and a rear-view camera.
Plus, the outboard rear seats include ISOFIX child restraint anchors as well as three top tethers for top straps.
Hyundais are all covered by a competitive five-year and unlimited-kilometre warranty, which includes 12 months of roadside assist. The roadside assist is topped up for an additional 12 months with every genuine service, and the battery pack in EV models like the Ioniq is covered for eight years or 160,000km.
Hyundai's service pricing is amongst the best in the business, and with less moving parts, the electric Ioniq is the cheapest in the range with the first five services for the life of the warranty fixed at just $160 per 12 monthly or 15,000km interval.
The Cupra comes with a five-year/unlimited kilometre warranty, which is standard fare nowadays, as well as five years of roadside assistance.
Service intervals are at 12 months or 15,000km.
The VZe is offered with a three-year or five-year service pack in place of capped-priced servicing. The price for three years is $990 (until December 31, 2023).